United States military forces completed their withdrawal from Iraq on Wednesday, ending a 23-year military presence that began with the 2003 invasion of the country.
The exit fulfills a deadline established between Washington and Baghdad, following official confirmation from both governments in July that all remaining American troops would leave the country before September 30.
Prior to the final departure, approximately 2,500 American soldiers remained in Iraq, primarily stationed at military facilities in the autonomous Kurdistan region in the north of the country to provide advisory and support roles.
The withdrawal was marked by quiet administrative procedures rather than formal ceremonies, parades, or flag-lowering events. On the eve of the deadline, Iraqi officials signed an agreement with the United States to take control of a key diplomatic and logistical center at Baghdad International Airport.
Two decades of military involvement
The conclusion of the American military presence marks the end of an era that commenced on March 19, 2003, when President George W. Bush ordered the invasion of Iraq, citing allegations that the regime of Saddam Hussein possessed weapons of mass destruction.
Coalition forces captured Baghdad within three weeks, pulling down a prominent statue of the dictator in Firdos Square, which led Washington to initially declare early victory. However, the subsequent occupation developed into a long and costly conflict.
The decision by occupation authorities to dissolve the Iraqi army and purge members of the ruling Baath party left hundreds of thousands of armed personnel unemployed and discontented. The resulting power vacuum was filled by militias, a fierce Sunni insurgency, and Al-Qaeda.
Between 2006 and 2007, Iraq descended into a sectarian civil war between Sunni and Shiite factions. In response, President Bush authorized a major troop surge that raised the American military presence to nearly 170,000 soldiers, which alongside diplomatic agreements with Sunni tribal leaders in Anbar province, temporarily restored order.
Rise of Islamic State and coalition return
President Barack Obama later oversaw the transition of American forces, fulfilling his campaign commitments by withdrawing combat troops in 2010 and pulling out all remaining forces by December 2011, when Iraq was proclaimed sovereign and stable.
That stability proved short-lived. Amid growing sectarianism under the government of Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, Islamic State militants emerged from the remnants of Al-Qaeda in Iraq.
In 2014, Islamic State forces launched a sweeping offensive and captured Mosul, Iraq's second-largest city, as the Iraqi national army experienced widespread collapse.
The United States subsequently returned to Iraq at the helm of an international military coalition to combat the extremist group. After three years of intensive warfare, the self-proclaimed caliphate across Iraq and Syria was dismantled, though major urban centers were left in ruins.
While ground operations against Islamic State were largely carried out by Iraqi national forces and Kurdish fighters, dozens of Shiite militias also played a prominent role in the campaign, creating a persistent security challenge for both Baghdad and Washington.
Growing Iranian influence and regional crisis
The 2003 overthrow of Saddam Hussein ultimately expanded the regional influence of the Islamic Republic of Iran, which established deep ties with Iraqi Shiite political parties and paramilitary groups.
Over time, these pro-Iranian militias were formally integrated into Iraq's national security apparatus while maintaining strategic allegiance to Tehran. Following the outbreak of the war in Gaza, repeated drone and rocket attacks by these militia groups against bases housing American personnel accelerated negotiations for the troop exit.
The phased withdrawal framework was finalized under the administration of President Joe Biden. The initial phase of the agreement concluded in September 2025, while the final phase covering military installations in Kurdistan concluded on Wednesday.
The final withdrawal takes place under President Donald Trump during a heightened regional crisis involving Iran. Tensions have intensified following Tehran's rejection of proposals regarding the reopening of the strategic Strait of Hormuz, raising concerns over potential escalation across the Middle East.
Security threats and future economic relations
Security experts caution that renewed conflict involving Iran could destabilize Iraq, where numerous armed militias operate outside the direct control of the central government in Baghdad. Consecutive Iraqi administrations have struggled to disarm these autonomous paramilitary units.
Concerns over militia activity were underscored a little over two weeks ago when the East-West oil pipeline in Saudi Arabia was attacked from Iraqi territory, an incident acknowledged by the Iraqi government and widely attributed to pro-Iranian groups.
On Tuesday, the pro-Iranian militia Kataib Hezbollah issued a formal statement warning that it would shoot down any aircraft it deemed hostile in Iraqi airspace beginning Wednesday.
The militant organization stated that the Iraqi public would celebrate the departure of United States and NATO forces, describing the withdrawal as a necessary first step toward achieving complete national sovereignty over Iraq's land, territorial waters, and airspace.
Human toll, financial cost, and strategic legacy
The 23-year American military involvement in Iraq exacted a heavy human and financial toll. Approximately 4,500 American military service members lost their lives during the conflict.
Casualties among Iraqis, including civilians and combatants, are estimated to exceed hundreds of thousands, while millions of citizens were displaced from their homes. The total financial expenditure for the United States Treasury is estimated in the trillions of dollars.
Despite the departure of military personnel, Iraqi Prime Minister Ali al-Zaidi confirmed that economic ties will continue, noting that while American military forces leave the country, American companies will remain operational in Iraq.
The legacy of the invasion includes the collapse of a brutal dictatorship, the introduction of regular democratic elections, and the formal consolidation of regional autonomy for Kurdistan. Iraq has also achieved record levels of crude oil exports in recent years.
However, the nation remains a fragile democracy beset by political clientelism, systemic corruption, and a sectarian power-sharing framework, alongside powerful armed groups operating beyond the authority of the state.
